This topic covers 

• Geographical factors;
• Hunting and gath-ering (paleolithic and mesolithic);
• Beginning of agriculture (neolithic and chalcolithic).

Theory

The earliest people: why were they on the move?

• We know about people who lived in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago. Today, we describe them as hunter-gatherers.
• The name comes from the way in which they got their food. Generally, they hunted wild animals, caught fish and birds, gathered fruits, roots, nuts, seeds, leaves, stalks and eggs.
• The immense variety of plants in a tropical land like ours meant that gathering plant produce was an extremely important means of obtaining food. None of these things was easy to do.
• There are several animals that run faster than us, many that are stronger.
• To hunt animals or catch fish and birds, people need to be alert, quick, and have lots of presence of mind.
• To collect plant produce, you need to find out which plants or parts of plants are edible, that is, can be eaten, as many can be poisonous.
• You also need to find out about the seasons when the fruits ripen. List the skills and knowledge that the children of these communities had. Do you have these skills and knowledge?
• There are at least four reasons why hunter- gatherers moved from place to place.
• First, if they had stayed at one place for a long time, they would have eaten up all the available plant and animal resources. Therefore, they would have had to go elsewhere in search of food.
• Second, animals move from place to place — either in search of smaller prey, or, in the case of deer and wild cattle, in search of grass and leaves. That is why those who hunted them had to follow their movements.
• Third, plants and trees bear fruit in different seasons. So, people may have moved from season to season in search of different kinds of plants.
• Fourth, people, plants and animals need water to survive. Water is found in lakes, streams and rivers. While many rivers and lakes are perennial (with water throughout the year) others are seasonal. People living on their banks would have had to go in search of water during the dry seasons (winter and summer).
• Besides, people may have travelled to meet their friends and relatives. Remember, they travelled on foot.

How do we know about these people?

• Archaeologists have found some of the things hunter-gatherers made and used.

• It is likely that people made and used tools of stone, wood and bone, of which stone tools have survived best.
• Some uses of stone tools are given below. Make a list of what these tools were used for and try and decide which of these tasks could be performed using a natural pebble. Give reasons for your answer.
• Some of these stone tools were used to cut meat and bone, scrape bark (from trees) and hides (animal skins), chop fruit and roots.
• Some may have been attached to handles of bone or wood, to make spears and arrows for hunting.
• Other tools were used to chop wood, which was used as firewood.
• Wood was also used to make huts and tools.

Choosing a place to live

• All the places marked with red triangles are sites from which archaeologists have found evidence of hunter-gatherers. (Hunter- gatherers lived in many more places. Only some are shown on the map).
• Many sites were located near sources of water, such as rivers and lakes.
• As stone tools were important, people tried to find places where good quality stone was easily available. Places where stone was found and where people made tools are known as factory sites.
• How do we know where these factories were? Usually, we find blocks of stone, tools that were made and perhaps discarded because they were not perfect, and chips of waste stone left behind at these sites.
• Sometimes, people lived here for longer spells of time. These sites are called habitation-cum-factory sites.

Bhimbetka (in present- day Madhya Pradesh)

Some sites, known as habitation sites, are places where people lived. These include caves and rock shelters such as the one shown here. People chose these natural caves because they provided shelter from the rain, heat and wind. Natural caves and rock shelters are found in the Vindhyas and the Deccan plateau. These rock shelters are close to the Narmada valley.

Sites are places where the remains of things (tools, pots, buildings etc.) were found. These were made, used and left behind by people. These may be found on the surface of the earth, buried under the earth, or sometimes even under water.

Making stone tools

Stone tools were probably made using two different techniques:

1. The first is called stone on stone. Here, the pebble from which the tool was to be made (also called the core) was held in one hand. Another stone, which was used as a hammer was held in the other hand. The second stone was used to strike off flakes from the first, till the required shape was obtained.

2. Pressure flaking: Here the core was placed on a firm surface. The hammer stone was used on a piece of bone or stone that was placed on the core, to remove flakes that could be shaped into tools.

Finding out about fire

• Find the Kurnool caves on Map.Traces of ash have been found here. This suggests that people were familiar with the use of fire.
• Fire could have been used for many things: as a source of light, to cook meat, and to scare away animals.

A changing environment

• Around 12,000 years ago, there were major changes in the climate of the world, with a shift to relatively warm conditions.
• In many areas, this led to the development of grasslands. This in turn led to an increase in the number of deer, antelope, goat, sheep and cattle, i.e. animals that survived on grass.
• Those who hunted these animals now followed them, learning about their food habits and their breeding seasons.
• It is likely that this helped people to start thinking about herding and rearing these animals themselves. Fishing also became important.
• This was also a time when several grain bearing grasses, including wheat, barley and rice grew naturally in different parts of the subcontinent.
• Men, women and children probably collected these grains as food, and learnt where they grew, and when they ripened. This may have led them to think about growing plants on their own.

Names and dates

Archaeologists have given lengthy names for the time that we are studying.

• They call the earliest period the Palaeolithic. This comes from two Greek words, ‘palaeo’, meaning old, and ‘lithos’, meaning stone. The name points to the importance of finds of stone tools. The Palaeolithic period extends from 2 million years ago to about 12,000 years ago. This long stretch of time is divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Palaeolithic. This long span of time covers 99% of human history.
• The period when we find environmental changes, beginning about 12,000 years ago till about 10,000 years ago is called the Mesolithic (middle stone). Stone tools found during this period are generally tiny, and are called microliths. Microliths were probably stuck on to handles of bone or wood to make tools such as saws and sickles. At the same time, older varieties of tools continued to be in use.
• The next stage, from about 10,000 years ago, is known as the Neolithic.
• Ostriches in India! Ostriches were found in India during the Palaeolithic period. Large quantities of ostrich egg shells were found at Patne in Maharashtra. Designs were engraved on some pieces, while beads were also made out of them.

Rock paintings and what they tell us

• Many of the caves in which these early people lived have paintings on the walls. Some of the best examples are from Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh. These paintings show wild animals, drawn with great accuracy and skill.

Who did what?

• We have seen that the earliest people hunted, gathered plant produce, made stone tools, and painted on cave walls.
• Is there any way of finding out whether women hunted, or men made stone tools, whether women painted or men gathered fruits and nuts? At present, we do not really know.
• However, there are at least two possibilities. It is likely that both men and women may have done many of these things together. It is also possible that some tasks were done only by women and others only by men. And again, there could have been different practices in different parts of the subcontinent.

A closer look – Hunsgi

Find Hunsgi on Map

• A number of early Palaeolithic sites were found here. At some sites, a large number of tools, used for all sorts of activities, were found.
• These were probably habitation-cum factory sites.
• In some of the other, smaller sites, there is evidence to suggest that tools were made.
• Some of the sites were close to springs.
• Most tools were made from limestone, which was locally available.

From Gathering to Growing Food

Varieties of foods

• Today, most of our food such as fruit, vegetables, grain, milk and meat comes from plants that are grown and animals that are reared.
• Different plants grow in different conditions — rice, for example, requires more water than wheat and barley. This explains why farmers grow some crops in some areas and not in other areas.
• Different animals too, prefer different environments — for instance, sheep and goat can survive more easily than cattle in dry, hilly environments.
• But, women and men did not always produce their own food.

The beginnings of farming and herding

• Climate of the world was changing, and so were plants and animals that people used as food.
• Men, women and children probably observed several things: the places where edible plants were found, how seeds broke off stalks, fell on the ground, and new plants sprouted from them.
• Perhaps they began looking after plants — protecting them from birds and animals so that they could grow and the seeds could ripen.
• In this way people became farmers. Women, men and children could also attract and then tame animals by leaving food for them near their shelters.
• The first animal to be tamed was the wild ancestor of the dog
•  Later, people encouraged animals that were relatively gentle to come near the camps where they lived. These animals such as sheep, goat, cattle and also the pig lived in herds, and most of them ate grass.
• Often, people protected these animals from attacks by other wild animals. This is how they became herders.
• Can you think of any reasons why the dog was perhaps the first animal to be tamed?

A new way of life

• If you plant a seed, you will notice that it takes some time to grow. This may be for several days, weeks, months and in some cases years.
• When people began growing plants, it meant that they had to stay in the same place for a long time looking after the plants, watering, weeding, driving away animals and birds — till the grain ripened.
• And then, the grain had to be used carefully. As grain had to be stored for both food and seed, people had to think of ways of storing it.
• In many areas, they began making large clay pots, or wove baskets, or dug pits into the ground.
• Do you think hunter-gatherers would have made and used pots? Give reasons for your answer.

‘Storing’ animals

• Animals multiply naturally. Besides, if they are looked after carefully, they provide milk, which is an important source of food, and meat, whenever required.
• In other words, animals that are reared can be used as a ‘store’ of food.
• Apart from food, what are the other things that could have been obtained from animals? What are animals used for today?

Finding out about the first farmers and herders

• Turn to Map. You will notice a number of blue squares. Each marks a site from where archaeologists have found evidence of early farmers and herders. These are found all over the subcontinent.
• Some of the most important ones are in the north-west, in present-day Kashmir, and in east and south India.
• To find out whether these sites were settlements of farmers and herders, scientists study evidence of plants and animal bones.
• One of the most exciting finds includes remains of burnt grain. (These may have been burnt accidentally or on purpose).
• Scientists can identify these grains, and so we know that a number of crops were grown in different parts of the subcontinent.
• They can also identify the bones of different animals.
• Look at the table below to see where evidence of grain and bones of domesticated animals have been found.

Towards a settled life

• Archaeologists have found traces of huts or houses at some sites. For instance, in Burzahom (in present-day Kashmir) people built pit-houses, which were dug into the ground, with steps leading into them. These may have provided shelter in cold weather.
• Archaeologists have also found cooking hearths both inside and outside the huts, which suggests that, depending on the weather, people could cook food either indoors or outdoors.
•  Stone tools have been found from many sites as well. Many of these are different from the earlier Palaeolithic tools and that is why they are called Neolithic.
• These include tools that were polished to give a fine cutting edge, and mortars and pestles used for grinding grain and other plant produce.Mortars and pestles are used for grinding grain even today, several thousand years later.
• At the same time, tools of the Palaeolithic types continued to be made and used, and remember, some tools were also made of bone.
• Many kinds of earthen pots have also been found. These were sometimes decorated, and were used for storing things.
• People began using pots for cooking food, especially grains like rice, wheat and lentils that now became an important part of the diet.
• Besides, they began weaving cloth, using different kinds of materials, for example cotton, that could now be grown.
• Did things change everywhere and all at once? Not quite. In many areas, men and women still continued to hunt and gather food, and elsewhere people adopted farming and herding slowly, over several thousand years. Besides, in some cases people tried to combine these activities, doing different things during different seasons.

What about other customs and practices?

• Archaeology does not tell us directly about these. Scholars have studied the lives of present-day farmers who practise simple agriculture.
• They have also studied the lives of herders. Many of these farmers and herders live in groups called tribes.
• Scholars find that they follow certain customs and practices that may have existed earlier as well.

A closer look — Living and dying in Mehrgarh

• Find Mehrgarh on Map . This site is located in a fertile plain, near the Bolan Pass, which is one of the most important routes into Iran.
• Mehrgarh was probably one of the places where women and men learnt to grow barley and wheat, and rear sheep and goats for the first time in this area.
• It is one of the earliest villages that we know about.
• Archaeologists who excavated the site found evidence of many kinds of animal bones from the earliest levels. These included bones of wild animals such as the deer and pig.
• In later levels, they found more bones of sheep and goat, and in still later levels, cattle bones are most common, suggesting that this was the animal that was generally kept by the people.
• Other finds at Mehrgarh include remains of square or rectangular houses

• Each house had four or more compartments, some of which may have been used for storage.
• When people die, their relatives and friends generally pay respect to them. People look after them, perhaps in the belief that there is some form of life after death. Burial is one such arrangement.

• Several burial sites have been found at Mehrgarh. In one instance, the dead person was buried with goats, which were probably meant to serve as food in the next world.

A closer look — Daojali Hading

• Find Daojali Hading on Map. This is a site on the hills near the Brahmaputra Valley, close to routes leading into China and Myanmar.
• Here stone tools, including mortars and pestles, have been found. These indicate that people were probably growing grain and preparing food from it.
• Other finds include jadeite, a stone that may have been brought from China.
• Also common are finds of tools made of fossil wood (ancient wood that has hardened into stone), and pottery.

Domestication

• It is the name given to the process in which people grow plants and look after animals. Very often, plants and animals that are tended by people become different from wild plants and animals.
• This is because people select plants and animals for domestication. For example, they select those plants and animals that are not prone to disease.
• They also select plants that yield large-size grain, and have strong stalks, capable of bearing the weight of the ripe grain.
• Seeds from selected plants are preserved and sown to ensure that new plants (and seeds) will have the same qualities.
• Amongst animals, those that are relatively gentle are selected for breeding. As a result, gradually, domesticated animals and plants become different from wild animals and plants.
• For example, the teeth and horns of wild animals are usually much larger than those of domesticated animals.
• Domestication was a gradual process that took place in many parts of the world. It began about 12,000 years ago.
• Virtually all the plant and animal produce that we use as food today is a result of domestication.
• Some of the earliest plants to be domesticated were wheat and barley.
• The earliest domesticated animals include sheep and goat.

Tribes

• Usually two to three generations live together in small settlements or villages. Most families are related to one another and groups of such families form a tribe.
• Members of a tribe follow occupations such as hunting, gathering, farming, herding and fishing.
• Usually, women do most of the agricultural work, including preparing the ground, sowing seeds, looking after the growing plants and harvesting grain.
• Children often look after plants, driving away animals and birds that might eat them. Women also thresh, husk, and grind grain.
• Men usually lead large herds of animals in search of pasture.
• Children often look after small flocks.
• The cleaning of animals and milking, is done by both men and women.
• Both women and men make pots, baskets, tools and huts. They also take part in singing, dancing and decorating their huts.
• Some men are regarded as leaders. They may be old and experienced, or young, brave warriors, or priests.
• Old women are respected for their wisdom and experience.
• Tribes have rich and unique cultural traditions, including their own language, music, stories and paintings.
• They also have their own gods and goddesses.
• What makes tribes different from many other societies you will be studying about is that land, forests, grasslands and water are regarded as the wealth of the entire tribe, and everybody shares and uses these together. There are no sharp differences between the rich and the poor.
• Make a list of all the activities performed by men in tribal societies. What do women do? Are there any activities that are done by both men and women?