Regional States during Gupta Era


Last Updated : 29-03-2024 12:44:00
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The Kadambas, Pallavas, Chalukyas of Badami; Polity and Administration, Tradeguilds, Literature; growth of Vaishnava and Saiva religions. Tamil Bhakti movement, Shankaracharya; Vedanta;Institutions of temple and temple architecture; Palas, Senas, Rashtrakutas,Paramaras, Polity and administration;Cultural aspects. Arab conquest of Sind;Alberuni, The Chalukyas of Kalyana,Cholas, Hoysalas, Pandyas; Polity andAdministration; local Government;Growth of art and architecture, religious sects, Institution of temple and Mathas,Agraharas, education and literature,economy and society.

Notes

How to find out about trade and traders

  • You read about the Northern Black Polished Ware. This fine pottery, especially bowls and plates, were found from several archaeological sites throughout the subcontinent. How do you think it reached these places?
  • Traders may have carried them from the places where they were made, to sell them at other places.
  • South India was famous for gold, spices, especially pepper, and precious stones. Pepper was particularly valued in the Roman Empire, so much so that it was known as black gold. So, traders carried many of these goods to Rome in ships, across the sea, and by land in caravans.
  • There must have been quite a lot of trade as many Roman gold coins have been found in south India.
  • Traders explored several sea routes. Some of these followed the coasts. There were others across the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, where sailors took advantage of the monsoon winds to cross the seas more quickly.
  • So, if they wanted to reach the western coast of the subcontinent from East Africa or Arabia, they chose to sail with the south-west monsoon. And sturdy ships had to be built for these long journeys.

New kingdoms along the coasts

  • The southern half of the subcontinent is marked by a long coastline, and with hills, plateaus, and river valleys. Amongst the river valleys, that of the Kaveri is the most fertile.
  • Chiefs and kings who controlled the river valleys and the coasts became rich and powerful.
  • Sangam poems mention the muvendar. This is a Tamil word meaning three chiefs, used for the heads of three ruling families, the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas , who became powerful in south India around 2300 years ago.
  • Each of the three chiefs had two centres of power: one inland, and one on the coast. Of these six cities, two were very important: Puhar or Kaveripattinam, the port of the Cholas, and Madurai, the capital of the Pandyas.
  • The chiefs did not collect regular taxes. Instead, they demanded and received gifts from the people. They also went on military expeditions, and collected tribute from neighbouring areas.
  • They kept some of the wealth and distributed the rest amongst their supporters, including members of their family, soldiers, and poets.
  • Many poets whose compositions are found in the Sangam collection composed poems in praise of chiefs who often rewarded them with precious stones, gold, horses, elephants, chariots, and fine cloth.
  • Around 200 years later a dynasty known as the Satavahanas became powerful in western India. The most important ruler of the Satavahanas was Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni. We know about him from an inscription composed by his mother, Gautami Balashri.
  • He and other Satavahana rulers were known as lords of the dakshinapatha, literally the route leading to the south, which was also used as a name for the entire southern region.
  • He sent his army to the eastern, western and southern coasts.

The story of the Silk Route

  • The rich, glossy colours of silk, as well as its smooth texture, make it a highly valued fabric in most societies.
  • Making silk is a complicated process. Raw silk has to be extracted from the cocoons of silk worms, spun into thread and then woven into cloth.
  • Techniques of making silk were first invented in China around 7000 years ago.
  • While the methods remained a closely guarded secret for thousands of years, some people from China who went to distant lands on foot, horseback, and on camels, carried silk with them. The paths they followed came to be known as the Silk Route.
  • Sometimes, Chinese rulers sent gifts of silk to rulers in Iran and west Asia, and from there, the knowledge of silk spread further west.
  • About 2000 years ago, wearing silk became the fashion amongst rulers and rich people in Rome. It was very expensive, as it had to be brought all the way from China, along dangerous roads, through mountains and deserts.
  • People living along the route often demanded payments for allowing traders to pass through.
  • Some kings tried to control large portions of the route. This was because they could benefit from taxes, tributes and gifts that were brought by traders travelling along the route. In return, they often protected the traders who passed through their kingdoms from attacks by robbers.
  • The best-known of the rulers who controlled the Silk Route were the Kushanas, who ruled over central Asia and north-west India around 2000 years ago.
  • Their two major centres of power were Peshawar and Mathura. Taxila was also included in their kingdom.
  • During their rule, a branch of the Silk Route extended from Central Asia down to the seaports at the mouth of the river Indus, from where silk was shipped westwards to the Roman Empire. The
  • Kushanas were amongst the earliest rulers of the subcontinent to issue gold coins. These were used by traders along the Silk Route.

The spread of Buddhism

  • The most famous Kushana ruler was Kanishka, who ruled around 1900 years ago. He organised a Buddhist council, where scholars met and discussed important matters.
  • Ashvaghosha, a poet who composed a biography of the Buddha, the Buddhacharita, lived in his court.
  • Ashvaghosha and other Buddhist scholars now began writing in Sanskrit. A new form of Buddhism, known as Mahayana Buddhism, now developed.
  • This had two distinct features. Earlier, the Buddha’s presence was shown in sculpture by using certain signs. For instance, his attainment of enlightenment was shown by sculptures of the peepal tree. Now, statues of the Buddha were made. Many of these were made in Mathura, while others were made in Taxila.
  • Below left : An image of the Buddha from Mathura. Right : An image of the Buddha from Taxila.

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  • The second change was a belief in Bodhisattvas. These were supposed to be persons who had attained enlightenment. Once they attained   enlightenment, they could live in complete isolation and meditate in peace. However, instead of doing that, they remained in the world to teach and help other people.
  • The worship of Bodhisattvas became very popular, and spread throughout Central Asia, China, and later to Korea and Japan.
  • Buddhism also spread to western and southern India, where dozens of caves were hollowed out of hills for monks to live in. Some of these caves were made on the orders of kings and queens, others by merchants and farmers.
  • A cave at Karle, Maharashtra

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  • These were often located near passes through the Western Ghats. Roads connecting prosperous ports on the coast with cities in the Deccan ran through these passes.
  • Traders probably halted in these cave monasteries during their travels.
  • Buddhism also spread south eastwards, to Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia including Indonesia. The older form of Buddhism, known as Theravada Buddhism was more popular in these areas.

The quest of the pilgrims

  • As traders journeyed to distant lands in caravans and ships, pilgrims often travelled with them.
  • Pilgrims are men and women who undertake journeys to holy places in order to offer worship.
  • The best-known of these are the Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa Xian, who came to the subcontinent about 1600 years ago, Xuan Zang (who came around 1400 years ago) and I-Qing, who came about 50 years after Xuan Zang.
  • They came to visit places associated with the life of the Buddha as well as famous monasteries.
  • Each of these pilgrims left an account of his journey. They wrote of the dangers they encountered on their travels, which often took years, of the countries and the monasteries that they visited, and the books they carried back with them.
  • How Fa Xian returned to China
  • Fa Xian began his journey back home from Bengal. He boarded a ship belonging to some merchants. They had barely travelled for two days when they were caught in a storm. The merchants began throwing their merchandise overboard so as to lighten the load and save the ship from sinking. Fa Xian threw away his meagre personal belongings, but clung to his books and the statues of the Buddha that he had collected. Finally, the storm subsided after 13 days. This is how he describes the sea: “The sea itself is boundless in extent — it is impossible to know east or west, except by observing the sun, moon, or stars in their motions. If it is dark, rainy weather, the only plan is to steer by the wind.” It took him more than 90 days to reach Java, where he halted for five months, before boarding another merchant ship that took him to China.
  • Xuan Zang, who took the land route back to China (through the north-west, and Central Asia) carried back with him statues of the Buddha made of gold, silver and sandalwood, and over 600 manuscripts loaded on the backs of 20 horses. Over 50 manuscripts were lost when the boat on which he was crossing the Indus capsised. He spent the rest of his life translating the remaining manuscripts from Sanskrit into Chinese.
  • Nalanda – A unique centre of Buddhist learning : Xuan Zang, and other pilgrims spent time studying in Nalanda, (Bihar) the most famous Buddhist monastery of the period. This is how he describes it: “The teachers are men of the highest ability and talent. They follow the teachings of the Buddha in all sincerity. The rules of the monastery are strict, and everyone has to follow them. Discussions are held throughout the day, and the old and the young mutually help one another. Learned men from different cities come here to settle their doubts. The gatekeeper asks new entrants difficult questions. They are allowed to enter only after they have been able to answer these. Seven or eight out of every ten are not able to answer.”

The beginning of Bhakti

  • This was also the time when the worship of certain deities, which became a central feature of later Hinduism, gained in importance. These deities included Shiva, Vishnu, and goddesses such as Durga.
  • These deities were worshipped through Bhakti, an idea that became very popular at this time. Bhakti is generally understood as a person’s devotion to his or her chosen deity.
  • Anybody, whether rich or poor, belonging to the so-called ‘high’ or ‘low’ castes, man or woman, could follow the path of Bhakti.
  • The idea of Bhakti is present in the Bhagavad Gita, a sacred book of the Hindus, which is included in the Mahabharata. In this Krishna the god, asks Arjuna, his devotee and friend, to abandon all dharmas and take refuge in him, as only he can set Arjuna free from every evil.
  • This form of worship gradually spread to different parts of the country. Those who followed the system of Bhakti emphasised devotion and individual worship of a god or goddess, rather than the performance of elaborate sacrifices.
  • According to this system of belief, if a devotee worships the chosen deity with a pure heart, the deity will appear in the form in which he or she may desire. So, the deity could be thought of as a human being, lion, tree or any other form.
  • Once this idea gained acceptance, artists made beautiful images of these deities. Because the deities were special, these images of the deity were often placed within special homes, places that we describe as temples.
  • Bhakti inspired some of the best expressions in art — sculpture, poetry and architecture.
  • Vishnu as Varaha — an image from Eran, Madhya Pradesh. This magnificent statue is of a special form of Vishnu, the Varaha or boar. According to the Puranas Vishnu took the shape of a boar in order to rescue the earth, which had sunk into water. Here the earth is shown as a woman.

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  • Bhakti Comes from the Sanskrit term bhaj meaning ‘to divide or share.’ This suggests an intimate, two-way relationship between the deity and the devotee.
  • Bhakti is directed towards Bhagavat, which is often translated as god, but also means one who possesses and shares bhaga, literally good fortune or bliss. The devotee, known as the bhakta or the bhagavata, shares his or her chosen deity’s bhaga.
  • Tamil poet Appar, a devotee of Shiva, who lived about 1400 years ago. Appar was a vellala.
  • The word ‘Hindu’, like the term ‘India’ is derived from the river Indus. It was used by Arabs and Iranians to refer to people who lived to the east of the river, and to their cultural practices, including religious beliefs.

Prashastis and what they tell us

  • Samudragupta, a famous ruler of a dynasty known as the Guptas. We know about Samudragupta from a long inscription, actually a poem in Sanskrit, composed by his court poet, Harishena nearly 1700 years ago. This was inscribed on the Ashokan pillar at Allahabad.
  • This inscription is of a special kind known as a prashasti, a Sanskrit word, meaning ‘in praise of’. While prashastis were composed for some of the rulers you read about, such as Gautamiputra Shri Satakarni, they became far more important from the time of the Guptas.

image

What Samudragupta’s prashasti tells us :

  • The poet praised the king in glowing terms — as a warrior, as a king who won victories in battle, who was learned and the best of poets. He is also described as equal to the gods.
  • The prashasti was composed in very long sentences. Here is part of one such sentence:  Samudragupta the warrior – Whose body was most charming, being covered with the plenteous beauty of the marks of hundreds of scars caused by battle-axes, arrows, spikes, spears, barbed darts, swords, iron clubs, javelins, barbed arrows, long arrows and many other weapons.
  • This map is based on the information provided in the prashasti.

image

  • Harishena describes four different kinds of rulers, and tells us about Samudragupta’s policies towards them.
  1. The rulers of Aryavarta, the area shaded in dark on the map. Here there were nine rulers who were uprooted, and their kingdoms were made a part of Samudragupta’s empire.
  2. The rulers of Dakshinapatha. Here there were twelve rulers, some of whose capitals are marked with dark black dots on the map. They surrendered to Samudragupta after being defeated and he then allowed them to rule again.
  3. The inner circle of neighbouring states, including Assam, coastal Bengal, Nepal, and a number of gana sanghas in the north- west brought tribute, followed his orders, and attended his court.
  4. The rulers of the outlying areas perhaps the descendants of the Kushanas and Shakas, and the ruler of Sri Lanka, who submitted to him and offered daughters in marriage.
  • Prayaga (the old name for Allahabad), Ujjain and Pataliputra (Patna) were important centres of the Gupta rulers.

Genealogies

  • Most prashastis also mention the ancestors of the ruler. This one mentions Samudragupta’s great grandfather, grandfather, father and mother.
  • His mother, Kumara devi, belonged to the Lichchhavi gana, while his father, Chandragupta, was the first ruler of the Gupta dynasty to adopt the grand title of maharaj-adhiraja, a title that Samudragupta also used.
  • His great grandfather and grandfather are mentioned simply as maha- rajas. It seems as if the family gradually rose to importance.
  • Samudragupta in turn figures in the genealogies (lists of ancestors) of later rulers of the dynasty, such as his son, Chandragupta II. We know about him from inscriptions and coins. He led an expedition to western India, where he overcame the last of the Shakas. According to later belief, his court was full of learned people, including Kalidasa the poet, and Aryabhata the astronomer.

Harshavardhana and the Harshacharita

  • We can find out about some kings from biographies. Harshavardhana, who ruled nearly 1400 years ago, was one such ruler.
  • His court poet, Banabhatta, wrote his biography, the Harshacharita, in Sanskrit.
  • This gives us the genealogy of Harsha, and ends with his becoming king.
  • Xuan Zang also spent a lot of time at Harsha’s court and left a detailed account of what he saw.
  • Harsha was not the eldest son of his father, but became king of Thanesar after both his father and elder brother died.
  • His brother-in-law was the ruler of Kanauj and he was killed by the ruler of Bengal. Harsha took over the kingdom of Kanauj, and then led an army against the ruler of Bengal.
  • Although he was successful in the east, and conquered both Magadha and Bengal, he was not as successful elsewhere.
  • He tried to cross the Narmada to march into the Deccan, but was stopped by a ruler belonging to the Chalukya dynasty, Pulakeshin II.

The Pallavas, Chalukyas and Pulakeshin’s prashasti

  • The Pallavas and Chalukyas were the most important ruling dynasties in south India during this period.
  • The kingdom of the Pallavas spread from the region around their capital, Kanchipuram, to the Kaveri delta, while that of the Chalukyas was centred around the Raichur Doab, between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra. Aihole, the capital of the Chalukyas, was an important trading centre. It developed as a religious centre, with a number of temples.
  • The Pallavas and Chalukyas frequently raided one another’s lands, especially attacking the capital cities, which were prosperous towns.
  • The best-known Chalukya ruler was Pulakeshin II. We know about him from a prashasti, composed by his court poet Ravikirti. This tells us about his ancestors, who are traced back through four generations from father to son.
  • Pulakeshin evidently got the kingdom from his uncle. According to Ravikirti, he led expeditions along both the west and the east coasts. Besides, he checked the advance of Harsha.
  • There is an interesting play of words in the poem. Harsha means happiness. The poet says that after this defeat, Harsha was no longer Harsha!
  • Pulakeshin also attacked the Pallava king, who took shelter behind the walls of Kanchipuram. But the Chalukya victory was short-lived.
  • Ultimately, both the Pallavas and the Chalukyas gave way to new rulers belonging to the Rashtrakuta and Chola dynasties.

How were these kingdoms administered?

  • As in the case of earlier kings, land revenue remained important for these rulers, and the village remained the basic unit of administration. There were some new developments as well.
  • Kings adopted a number of steps to win the support of men who were powerful, either economically, or socially, or because of their political and military strength.
  • For instance:

• Some important administrative posts were now hereditary. This means that sons succeeded fathers to these posts. For example, the poet Harishena was a maha-danda-nayaka, or chief judicial officer, like his father.

• Sometimes, one person held many offices. For instance, besides being a maha-danda-nayaka, Harishena was a kumar-amatya, meaning an important minister, and a sandhi-vigrahika, meaning a minister of war and peace.

• Besides, important men probably had a say in local administration. These included the nagara- shreshthi or chief banker or merchant of the city, the sarthavaha or leader of the merchant caravans, the prathama-kulika or the chief craftsman, and the head of the kayasthas or scribes.

  • These policies were reasonably effective, but sooner or later, some of these powerful men grew strong enough to set up independent kingdoms.

A new kind of army

  • Like earlier rulers, some of these kings maintained a well-organised army, with elephants, chariots, cavalry and foot soldiers.
  • Besides, there were military leaders who provided the king with troops whenever he needed them. They were not paid regular salaries. Instead, some of them received grants of land. They collected revenue from the land and used this to maintain soldiers and horses, and provide equipment for warfare. These men were known as samantas. Whenever the ruler was weak, samantas tried to become independent.

Assemblies in the southern kingdoms

  • The inscriptions of the Pallavas mention a number of local assemblies.
  • These included the sabha, which was an assembly of brahmin land owners. This assembly functioned through sub- committees, which looked after irrigation, agricultural operations, making roads, local temples, etc.
  • The ur was a village assembly found in areas where the land owners were not brahmins.
  • And the nagaram was an organisation of merchants.
  • It is likely that these assemblies were controlled by rich and powerful landowners and merchants.
  • Many of these local assemblies continued to function for centuries.

Ordinary people in the kingdoms

  • We can catch an occasional glimpse of the lives of ordinary people from plays, and other accounts. Let us look at some of these.
  • Kalidasa is known for his plays depicting life in the king’s court. An interesting feature about these plays is that the king and most brahmins are shown as speaking Sanskrit, while women and men other than the king and brahmins use Prakrit.
  • His most famous play, Abhijnana Shakuntalam, is the story of the love between a king named Dushyanta and a young woman named Shakuntala.
  • We find an interesting description of the plight of a poor fisherman in this play. A fisherman finds a ring A fisherman found a precious ring, which the king had given to Shakuntala, but which had been accidentally swallowed by a fish.
  • When he went to the palace with it, the gatemen accused him of theft, and the chief police officer was rather rude.
  • However, the king was happy when he saw the ring and sent a reward for the fisherman.
  • Then, the police officer and the gatemen decided to take a share of the reward, and went along with the fisherman to have a drink.
  • The Chinese pilgrim Fa Xian noticed the plight of those who were treated as untouchables by the high and mighty. They were expected to live on the outskirts of the city. He writes: “If such a man enters a town or a market place, he strikes a piece of wood, in order to keep himself separate; people, hearing this sound, know what it means and avoid touching him or brushing against him.”
  • And Banabhatta provides us with a vivid picture of the king’s army on the move:

 The king’s army : The king travelled with an enormous amount of equipment. Apart from weapons, there were things of daily use such as pots, pans, furniture, golden footstools, food, including animals such as goat, deer, rabbits, vegetables, spices, carried on carts or loaded on to pack animals such as camels and elephants. This huge army was accompanied by musicians beating drums, and others playing horns and trumpets. Villagers had to provide hospitality along the way. They came with gifts of curds, gur and flowers, and provided fodder for the animals. They also tried to meet the king, and place their complaints and petitions before him. The army left a trail of destruction behind. Elephants often trampled down the huts of villagers, and the oxen yoked to the caravans of merchants ran away, scared by the tumult. As Banabhatta says: “The whole world was swallowed up in dust.”

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